高中语法_词法篇——动名词 动词不定式 现在分词与过去分词 独立主格结构 形容词和副词 冠词

高中语法_词法篇

中国有自己的文化，西方也有。文化是某个地区的习惯，对于语言来说，翻译不是一对一照着单词翻译，而是传递其精神内涵，从中文的语言习惯变成英文的语言习惯，然后把意思传达到。

目录

一、动名词_构成&特征&功能

01. 动名词的构成：

动名词是动词的一种非谓语动词形式，与现在分词同形，由 “ 动词原形 + -ing ” 构成。

非谓语动词就是动词不能做谓语的形式，共有四种：动名词、现在分词、过去分词以及动词不定式。

02. 动名词的特征

  1. 动名词兼有动词和名词的特征。

    动名词它既有动词的特征 它又有名词的特征。动名词 中心在名上，所以动名词归根到底 我们还是把它当名词来用但是它保留有动词的特征，动名词当名词来用但是保留动词的特征。

  2. 动名词可以带宾语、状语或表语。

    其动词的特征表现在可以带宾语、状语或表语。

    #：如果是一个及物动词是不是就可以带宾语了，那动名词如果是由及物动词变来的照样可以带宾语；然后也可以带状语，因为修饰动词，我们不是用副词做状语的吗？那么动名词照样可以带状语，因为一般的名词是不带状语的，名词带定语但是它有动词的特征所以可以带状语。那甚至也可以带表语。

    • I don’t like watching TV. 我不喜欢看电视。 #：这里 watching 这就是动名词 ，由于watch 这个词 观看，它是及物动词，所以它可以带宾语，宾语就是 TV。

    • Getting up early is considered a good habit. 早起被认为是个好习惯 #：现在动名词是 getting 当然现在是动名词短语 getting up 起床，那么 early 是不是就是修饰 getting up 它就是做状语的。

    • He dreamt of becoming a pilot. 他梦想着成为一名飞行员。 #: dreamt 原形是 dream 做梦或者是梦想；becoming 这是动名词，由于become 是一个系动词，系动词可以带表语，所以现在由become这个系动词变过来的动名词 becoming 也可以带表语，他的表语就是 a pilot 。

    什么词带宾语什么词带表语，这得由动词决定。如果这个动词是系动词那么他就带着叫表语，如果它是及物动词，它带的就叫宾语。

  3. 动名词的动词特征还表现在它的时态和语态的变化。

    此外，动名词的动词特征还表现在它的时态和语态的变化 ，

    #：动词是有时态和语态的变化的。那么动名词是由于动词来的，所以它也有时态和语态的变化。

    • He insisted坚持 on being told the truth. 他坚持要求被告知事实的真相。 #：他坚持要求的是“被告知”,现在告诉你 是tell，但不能直接用telling ，因为他是被告诉事实的真相，又不是他坚持要求告诉别人，这个时候我们就要用动名词的被动语态了being told。

    • I know nothing about his having served in the army部队. 我不知道他在部队里服过兵役。 现在他在部队里服过役，这是以前的事请。以前的事请表示也就是说动名词的动作要发生在谓语动词之前。这个时候我们要用动名词的完成形式 having served。

  4. 动名词的名词特征主要表现在它在句中可以充当主语、宾语或表语。

    动名词的名词特征主要表现在它在句中可以充当主语、宾语或表语。

    #：名词在句子中作主语、宾语、表语，动名词也可以作主语、宾语、表语。

    • Smoking may cause cancer. 抽烟有可能导致癌症。 Smoking 作主语，动名词作主语。

    • He is fond of playing football. 他喜欢踢足球。 #:be fond of 表示喜欢，在 be fond of 这个结构中，of是一个介词，介词后面是不是要带宾语。所以现在这个playing 他就是作宾语的。当然在play后又加了一个宾语 宾语就是football。play在这作宾语同时又带了宾语，因为它作宾语是因为把它当名词，然后它带宾语是因为它是由及物动词play来的，所以他还可以带宾语

    • My job is teaching English. 我的工作是教英语。 #：teaching 在系动词 is 的后面 是不是作表语了

03. 动名词的功能（在句中作什么成分的问题。）

  1. 作主语，use, good, pity, worth, terrible等名词或形容词作表语时，可用 it 作形式主语，把作主语的动名词后置。

    • “There is no + 动名词” 为常见结构，相当于“ It is impossible to do sth. ”。#：动名词不是当名词来用的含有动词特征的词吗，既然是当名词来用，所以最基本的就可以当主语了。

    • Walking is good exercise. 散步是很好的运动。 #：Walking 就是动名词做主语，那为啥要用动名词来做主语呢？从中文的角度想，“散步是很好的运动”，散步是不是动名词 walk。中文相对来讲比较灵活的语言，那主语是个动词啥的没关系，但在英文当中作主语的必须是名词或者相当于名词的词，所以现在主语是 散步 这样的动词，我们就需要把它改成可以当名词的形式。而动词可以当名词的形式，那我们就可以把它改成动名词了。简单来讲如果中文中主语是动词，翻译成因为我们就要用动名词作主语了。

    • Seeing is believing. 眼见为实（看见就是相信）。 #：看见就是动词要当主语那我们就用seeing 。主语是动名词，当然在这表语 believing也是动名词。

    • Saying is easier than doing. 说比做容易。 #：说本来就是动词作主语的，我们把它换成动名词 saying 。然后easier 更容易 than doing，后面的doing也是动名词。

    • Being late is unforgivable here. 迟到在这是不可饶恕的。 #：late在这是当作形容词的，英文中形容词不能当作主语。作主语的就需要相当于名词的词。形容词可以在前面加上一个be变成一个动词的结构，然后在把这个动词 be 再把它变成动名词。

    • Swimming is my favorite sport. 游泳是我最喜欢的运动。

    • Reading is my favorite pastime. 读书是我最喜爱的消遣。 #：past走过，经过；time就是时间 pastime在这里翻译成消遣。

    注1： use，good，pity，worth，terrible等名词或形容词作表语时，可用it作形式表语，把作主语的动名词后置。

    • It's no use waiting here. 在这等着没有用处。

    • It's no good helping him. 你帮助他没有用。 #：主语是helping him，原句Helping him is no good。

    注2. “There is no + 动名词” 为常见结构，相当于 “It is impossible to do sth.”。 #：表示作什么事情是不可能的。

    • There is no accounting for taste. 对于品味你无法解释。
    • There is no persuading her. 没法说服她。 #：persuad 意思是说服、劝说
    • There is no trusting such a man. 这样一个人无法信任。 #：trusting信任

  2. 作表语 #：放在系动词后面作表语

    • That is asking for trouble.那是自找麻烦。
    • The best policy is being honest.
    • Her job is keeping the hall as clean as possible.

  3. 作动词宾语

    下列动词后常用动名词作宾语：admit, stand, appreciate, avoid, complete，consider，deny，enjoy，escape，imagine，finish，keep，mind，practice，prevent，risk，suggest，allow，permit，recommend等。

    • He enjoys playing football.
    • He admitted taking the watch.
    • I don't mind driving if you are tired.
    • I always avoid travelling外出 during rush hour

  4. 作介词宾语

    • He left the room without saying a word.

    • I'm looking forward to seeing you soon. 我盼望着很快能见到你。 #：look forward to常见的短语意思是盼望、渴望、期待。

    • He apologized for keeping me waiting. #：for是介词之后用动名词。

  5. 作定语，动名词作定语修饰名词，两者结合即构成合成名词。

    • No one is allowed to speak aloud in the reading room.
    • That is a shop dealing in walking sticks.

    注：动名词作定语修饰名词，两者结合构成合成名词。

    waiting room、Swimming pool、sleeping pill、cooking oil。

二、动名词_时态&语态

01. 动名词时态和语态的分类

动名词具有动词的特征，因而有时态和语态变化。

时态有一般式和完成式；

语态有一般被动式和完成被动式。

02. 基本用法

  1. 动名词的时态（一般式）：主动语态doing 表示；被动语态由being done表示；动名词的时态（完成式）主动语态用having done表示；被动语态由having been done表示。 #：表示完成就要有have或者是has后面再加动词的过去分词而由于现在又是动名词的完成，have或者has得用动名词的形式，那动名词就是having；having体现动名词，been体现完成，过去分词done体现被动的。

    时态 主动语态 被动语态
    一般式 doing being done
    完成式 having done having been done

  2. 动名词没有独立的绝对的时态意义，它的时态意义从属于句中谓语动词的时态。动名词的一般式所表示的动作与谓语动词的动作同时或在其后发生，或表示一般情况；动名词完成式所表示的动作在谓语动词之前发生。

    • I am thinking of getting a new dictionary.（以后）我现在想买一本字典呢。
    • She is proud of being beautiful.（同时）
    • I am confident of his succeeding.（以后）
    • I have no doubt of his passing the exam.（以后）
    • She advised our studying science.（以后）
    • I approved of his taking part in the race.（同时或以后）
    • Learning is important to modern life.（一般情况）
    • I enjoy listening to music.（一般情况）
    • He never talked to me about his having been in Paris.（之前）
    • He is proud of having won the first prize.（之前）
    • She was not sure of having done anything wrong.（之前）

    注1：与介词on/upon或after连用时，动名词的一般式也可以表示一个先于谓语动词的动作，在这种情况下，谓语动词的动作一般紧跟在动名词等等动作之后。 #：on/upon固定搭配，on/upon + 动名词表示一...就...就相当于as soon as 它的意思。

    • On coming in, she put a pile of books on the desk.
    • On getting off the plane, I called my mom.
    • After entering the room, I told everybody the good news.

    注2： remember和forger等动词后动名词的一般式所表示的动作发生在谓语动词之前。 #：remember doing意识是记得做过某事；forget doing意思表示忘记做过某事，后面都用动名词表达的是做过，那就是之前做过。

    • Do you remember seeing him when he was a little boy?（习惯上不用动名词的完成）
    • I remember telling you the story.

  3. 动名词的主动语态表示主动行为，被动语态表示被动行为，动作的逻辑主语一般都可在句中找到。用主动语态时，逻辑主语发出动作；用被动语态时，逻辑主语承受动作。

    • He doesn't like being flattered.
    • Respecting others means being respected.尊重别人就意为着被尊重。
    • He will get angry at being offended.
    • She likes being seen.她喜欢出风头。
    • I heard of his having been chosen to be the coach of the team.
    • The housing problem is far from being settled.
    • Nowadays being killed in traffic accidents is a common occurrence.（省去了逻辑主语people's）

  4. 特例：动名词在need、want、require、deserve等表示”需要，值得“等动词及形容词worth后面时，常以主动形式表示被动意义。 #：在这些词后面，要表示被动意义，但是不用被动形式而用主动形式。

    • That needs explaining.
    • The room needs
    • Your hair wants cutting.
    • This method deserves recommending.
    • The flowers need watering.

    注：上述及几个动词，后面也可以用不定式被动式，意思不变。

    • That needs to be explained,
    • The room needs to be cleaned up.
    • Your hair wants to be cut.

三、动名词_复合结构

表示有生命的东西的名词后加's及某些表示时间、距离、星球、世界、国家等无生命的东西的名词后加of+名词来表示所有关系，叫做名词所有格。表示所有关系叫做所有格。

与动词在逻辑上存在着主谓关系，即语义上的施动者，称作逻辑主语。

表示所有关系的代词叫做物主代词(Possessive Pronouns)，也叫人称代词的所有格。物主代词分为形容词性物主代词和名词性物主代词两种。简称形物代与名物代。物主代词有人称和数的变化。第三人称单数的物主代词还有性别的变化。它表示着谁谁的，它一般在加普通名词。

动名词既有动词的特征又有名词的特征，所以动名词也有逻辑主语。Tom's leaving ，Tom's就是动名词leaving的逻辑主语。

动名词作为逻辑主语的一般规则：

  1. 动名词的逻辑主语是有生命名词时，用名词或代词所有格（动名词作主语时，其逻辑主语只用所有格；动名词作宾语时，逻辑主语可以用所有格也可以用通格）。 #：逻辑主语，当然就是动名词的逻辑主语了 ；所有格，我们就在后面加's，那如果是代词我们就用形容词性的物主代词。通格，简单来讲就是宾格形式；

    • Tom's leaving is what we have expected.
    • His resigning is a great loss.
    • Mother disliked me (/ my) working late.
    • I insisted on you (/ your) staying to dinner.

  2. 逻辑主语是无生命的名词时，只用通格。

    • She is fond of coffee being served after dinner.
    • Is there any hope of our team winning the match?
    • He is opposed to the idea of money being everything. 他反对金钱是一切这个观点。

  3. 逻辑主语是以-s结尾的名词或是一个以上名词构成的词组，只用通格。

    • It was quite unexpected the students finishing the exam so soon.
    • He can't permit his daughter and son being bullied.
    • His sister Helen getting married last week was a great event in the town.

  4. 逻辑主语是指示代词或不定代词时，一般用通格。 #：指示代词，像this、that等等这些就算

    • I am doubtful of this being the best choice.
    • He was awakened by somebody shouting outside.

注：动名词的复合结构多作主语或宾语。

  • John's having seen her did not make her worried.
  • I encourage them studying science.

04.用“介词 + 动名词”结构合并简单句。

英文中判断一句话写得好坏有一个标准之一，就是表达同样的意思用的谓语动词越少越好。

  1. 英语中往往可以用“介词 + 动名词”的结构将两个简单句合并，使得句中表达更加精炼。

    • I often fish for hours. I don't catch anything.

      合并：I often fish for hours without catching anything.

    • He came late. He didn't say sorry to me.

      合并：He came late without saying sorry to me.

  2. 一般来说，用“介词 + 动名词”结构时，动名词的逻辑主语应与主句主语统一。

    • He entered the room. He told me the news.

      合并：After entering the room, he told me the news.

      After entering the room, I told him the news. F

      After he entered the room, I told him the news. T

    • He apologized to me. He broke my favorite vase.

      合并：He apologized to me for breaking my favorite vase.

    • He went out of the restaurant. He didn't pay the bill.

      合并：He went out of the restaurant without paying the bill.

  3. 若动名词逻辑主语与主句主语不一致，则必须保证没有任何歧义。

    • He congratulated me. I won the competition.

      合并：He congratulated me on winning the competition.

    • He thanked me. I helped him.

      合并：He thanked me for helping him.

四、动词不定式_构成&特征&功能

01. 构成

动词不定式是动词的一种非谓语动词形式，由“to + 动词原形”构成。

02. 特征

  1. 动词不定式在句中起名词、形容词或副词的作用，同时也保留动词的一些特征，如可以带宾语或状语，有时态和语态的变化等。
    • I'll try to solve the problem in five hours.我会努力在五个小时之内把这个问题解决了。 #：动词不定式是*to solve the problem* ，作try的宾语，solve还带了宾语the problem。
    • I am sorry to have kept you waiting.
    • I am glad to have been given a chance to visit your country
  2. 不定式在许多场合具有情态意义。
    • 作主语时，相当于一个带有情态动词的主语从句；
      • It is right for her to say so. = It is right that she should say so.
    • 作定语时，相当于一个带有情态动词的定语从句；
      • He has a lot of work to do. = He has a lot of work that he should / must do.
    • 作宾语时，相当于一个带有情态动词的宾语从句；
      • I don't know where to get the ticket. = I don't know where I could get the ticket.
    • 做目的状语时，相当于由so that或in order that引导的目的状语从句。
      • She opened the door for the children to come in. = She opened the door so that children could come in.

03. 功能

  1. 作主语

    如果动词作主语，但是主语只能用名词，因此用动词的名词形式作主语。可以使用动名词或者动词不定式。

    • To hesitate means failure.
    • To think of you makes me old.思君令人老。
    • To know oneself is difficult.人若自知实属不易。
    • To talk to her is to talk to a wall.
    • To know everything is to know nothing.

    注：不定式作主语时，往往由it代替它作主语，不定式则移至句尾。 #：英文上习惯于短的在前长的在后。

    • It means failure to hesitate.
    • It makes me old to think of you.
    • It is difficult to know oneself.

  2. 作表语

    • To live is to do something meaningful.
    • To do it is to ruin yourself.
    • To become a beggar is to give up one's dignity.
    • They are to get married next week.

  3. 作宾语

    • He refused to be interviewed.
    • I can't afford to buy that car.
    • She longed to go back to her hometown.

    注：feel，find，make，think，believe等动词后如果是不定式作宾语，之后有补足语时，常用it作形式宾语，把不定式后移。

    • I find it difficult to work with him.
    • She made it a rule to get up at five. #：it代指to get up at five，原句：She made to get up at five a rule。
    • He thought it a great pity not to have invited her.

  4. 作宾语补足语

    • He likes his wife to stay at home.
    • I asked him to look after my dog while I am away.
    • I'll get someone to do it for you.
    • I prefer him not to come.

  5. 作定语

    动词不定式作定语时与其所修饰的词之间往往有动宾关系，如果该不定式是不及物动词，或者该不定式本身有宾语，其后应有必要的介词。

    • He needs something to eat.
    • She has a room to live in.
    • He has a child to take care of.
    • He lent me a book to kill time with.

  6. 作状语

    动词不定式作状语可表示目的，结果，原因，条件。

    1）表示目的。

    • He travels around the country to gather facts about the disease.
    • To save the boy, he sacrificed his own life.

    2）表示结果。

    • He studied hard only to fail the exam. #：动词不定式作结果状语的时候有时候前面通常加一个only，其实就是强调一下。
    • I hurried to school only to find it was Sunday.

    3）表示原因。

    • She blushed to see him.
    • He is rude to behave like that.
    • You are foolish to believe him .

    4）表示条件。

    • How can you catch the train to start so late?
    • You couldn't do that save you life.
    • You will do better to get her support.

五、动词不定式_用作宾语的动词&省略

01. 可以跟动词不定式作宾语的动词

agree，afford，appear，ask，choose，decide，determine，expect，fail，fear，hope，happen，hesitate，learn，long，manage，mean，offer，plan，pretend，promise，refuse，seem，threaten，volunteer，want，wish等。

  • The teacher agreed to let me go home early. #：let sb. do
  • We can't afford to wait any longer or we'll miss the plane. #：afford表示负担的起
  • She appears to have many friends.
  • Karen asked to see the doctor.
  • We chose to go by train.
  • Tina has decided to go to Prague for her holidays.
  • We determined to leave at once.
  • I expect to be back within a week.
  • Doctors failed to save the girl's life.
  • Most girls feat to go out at night.
  • I am hoping to study law at Harvard.
  • This happens to be my favorite restaurant.
  • Don't hesitate to contact me if you need any more information.
  • I'm learning to drive.
  • He longed to see her again.
  • How do you manage to stay so slim?
  • I didn't mean to upset you.
  • The kids offered to do the dishes.
  • I didn't plan to go to Australia.
  • She pretended not to notice.
  • She's promised to do all she can to help.
  • He refused to discuss the matter.
  • They seem to know what they're doing.
  • The hijackers threatened to kill one passenger every hour.
  • Helen volunteered to help me with my homework.
  • I've always wanted to go to Europe.
  • I wish to speak to the manager.

02.常见的省略to的动词不定式

  1. 当几个动词不定式具有同样的功能时，to只在第一个不定式前，以避免重复。

    • He decided to settle down in Sydney and continue his writing. #：to settle down，to continue his writing，第二个continue就把前面的to省略掉就可以了。
    • It is just impossible to see that an not (to) feel angry.

    注：如果两个不定式表示对照或者对比，或为了强调，则要重复用to。

    • To be or not to be, that is the question.
    • She likes to criticize but not to be criticized.

  2. 在以why引导的疑问句中不用to。

    • Why (to) worry about such things?
    • Why (to) leave the window open?
    • Why not do it right now?

  3. 在hear，feel，see，watch，notice，listen to，at，let，make，have等动词后，动词不定式作宾语补足语时不用to。

    • I didn't notice her go out.
    • Did you hear him go downstairs?
    • Look at the monkeys fight with each other.
    • He made her give up the property.
    • If you need any help, let me know
    • What would you have me do?

    注：这些动词若用于被动语态，则需要带do。

    • She wasn't noticed to go out.
    • She was made to give up the property.

  4. 在help后面，to可要可不要。

    • She often helps her mother (to) clean the rooms

    • Tom helped his father (to) carry the box upstairs.

    • Music can help you (to) relax after a whole day's work.

  5. 在go和come后可省略to，直接用另一个动词，多用于表示命令、建议或请求的句子中。

    • Go wash your hands.
    • Let's go see a movie.
    • Come have a drink with us.

六、动词不定式_时态和语态

01. 时态与语态

动词不定式有一般、进行、完成和完成进行四种时态变化形式，一般式和完成式有被动语态形式变化。

动词不定式的时态看与谓语动词的先后关系；

动词不定式的语态看与逻辑主语的关系

主动语态 被动语态
一般式 to do to be done
进行式 to be doing
完成式 to have done to have been done
完成进行式 to have been doing

02. 动词不定式的时态意义

  1. 动词不定式的一般式。

    动词不定式的一般式表示的动作与谓语动词的动作同时发生或在谓语动词之后发生。因为不定式的时态就是强调它跟谓语动词的先后关系。那么一般式就强调这个动词不定式的动作跟谓语动词要么是同时发生的要么是在谓语动词之后发生的。

    • I helped him to do his homework.
    • I'm learning to ski.
    • I hope to see you soon.

  2. 动词不定式的进行式。

    动词不定式的进行式表示与谓语动词动作同时且正在发生。你正在发生才能体现动词不定式的进行这个含有，所以表示动词不定式的这个动作跟谓语动词同时而且正在发生。

    • They seem to be getting along quite well.
    • It's nice to be lying on the beach.
    • I hate to be lying in bed like this while other students are having class.

    比较：

    • It's good to sit here with you.

      It's good to be sitting here with you.

    • He is said to write a Dear John letter.

      He is said to be writing a Dear John letter.

  3. 动词不定式的完成式。

    动词不定式的完成式表示在谓语动词的动作之前发生。事实上非谓语动词的完成形式用的比较多不管是那种比如说动名词的完成，现在这是动词不定式的完成到后面的现在分词的完成形式都表示这个非谓语动词的动作发生在谓语动词之前。

    • I'm sorry to have lost your key.
    • You are lucky to have won the girl's heart.
    • She was reported to have died.
    • The plane was reported to have crashed.
    • The singer is said to have killed herself.

    比较：

    • She seems to dance very well.

      She seems to have danced very will.

    • There seems to be some misunderstanding between them.

      There seems to have been some misunderstanding between them.

  4. 动词不定式的完成进行式。

    动词不定式的完成进行式表示一个开始于过去某一时刻但一直延续到谓语动词发生的那一时刻的动作。极速这个动词不定式的动作是在过去某一时刻开始的，但一直延续到谓语动词发生的那一时刻的动作，一个以前发生的动作一直延续到谓语动词发生，这样的一个动作我们就用动词不定式的完成进行式。

    • He was happy to have been staying with his uncle.

03.动词不定式的语态意义

  1. 如果动词不定式的逻辑主语是动作的执行者，动词不定式用主动式；

    如果动词不定式的逻辑主语是动作的承受者，动词不定式用被动式。

    • I advised him to save the money.

      I advised the money to be saved.

    • He was thought to have died 20 years before.

      He was thought to have been killed 20 years before.

    注1：在”名词（代词） + be + easy（difficult、hard、comfortable等）+ 不定式“结构中，有时尽管句中主语是动作的承受者，不定式在意义上是被动的，但形式上用主动。这时，可看作省略了不定式的逻辑主语for us、for you、for me等。

    • It's easy (for you) to say.
    • This book is difficult to read.
    • The man is hard (for me) to get along with.
    • I like getting up very early in summer.
    • The morning air is so good (for me) to breathe.

    注2：某些以there等开头的结构中用不定式的主动语态和被动语态均可。

    • There is a lot of work to do.(/to be done).
    • There is nothing to fear.(/to be feared).

  2. 动词不定式被动式的语法功能。

    同其主动式一样，不定式的被动式可以作主语、宾语、表语、定语和状语等。就是主动可以做什么成分被动就可以做什么成分。无非它跟它的逻辑主语是一个被动关系而已。

    • To be invited to the party is a great honor.
    • He wished to be sent there.
    • She had to shout to be heard.

04.动名词与动词不定式的区分

  1. 一般来说，动名词表示一般习惯，不是某一次的动作，或者指已成为过去的动作；

    动词不定式所表示的动作往往是具体的或特定的动作，或是现在或将来的动作。

    • I love watching the sunset.我喜欢看日落。 #：动名词watching。

      I'd love to watch the sunset today.我今天想看日落。 #：动词不定式to watch

    • I hate smoking.

      I hate to go there today.

    • I regret telling him the truth.

      I regret to tell you that your application was rejected. #：用动名词表示发生过的，用动词不定式表示还没发生的。

  2. 不定式作主语时，在很多情况下都可用动名词来代替；但是，如果作主语的不定式是固定说法，表示强烈的对比，或某些具体情况，通常不用动名词代替。

    注：不定式作主语时，在很多情况下都以用动名词来代替。

    • To see is to believe. = Seeing is believing.
    • To think of you makes me old. = Thinking of you makes me old.

    但是，如果作主语的不定式是固定说法，或表示强烈的对比，或某些具体情况，通常不用动名词代替。

    • To love is to be loved.
    • To finish this job in one day is impossible.
    • To err is human.凡人多舛误，惟神能见宥。

  3. 同时可以用动名词和动词不定式作宾语的动词用法及区分

    1）begin，start，continue，intend，cease，bother等动词后跟动名词或是动词不定式，含义没有大的区别。

    • She began feeling / to feel dizzy.
    • He started laughing / to laugh.
    • He picked up his book and continued reading / to read.
    • She intends buying / to buy a piano.
    • The factory has ceased making / to make bicycles.
    • Don't bother making / to make dinner for us. We'll eat out.

    2）有些动词后面跟动词不定式和跟动名词所表示的意义完全不同，有时甚至相反。

    • He stopped talking. 他停止谈话。

      He stopped to talk. 他停下来，开始讲话。

    • Please remember to post the letters.

      I remember posting your letters.

    • Don't forget to lock the door when you leave.

      I forgot locking the door.

    3）在某些情况下，”介词 + 动名词“等同于不定式结构，两者可以互相转换，意义上没有差别。

    • The water is too hot for drinking.

      The water is too hot to drink.

    • This machine is used for washing clothes.

      This machine is used to wash clothes.

    • I persuaded him into changing his mind.

      I persuaded him to change his mind.

    4）动名词和动词不定式作逻辑宾语

    动名词和动词不定式均可以作逻辑宾语，用it充当形式宾语。不定式作逻辑宾语极为普遍。

    动名词作逻辑宾语只限于少数句型，一般用在no use，no good，useless，a waste of time等后。

    • I find it difficult to understand this theory.
    • I think it my duty to help the poor little girl.
    • I find it useless persuading him to give up smoking.
    • He thinks it no good trying once more.

    5）to 后面接动名词还是动词原形

    to若是介词，后接动名词；若是动词不定式符号，后接动词原形。大多数情况下to还是当动词不定式的符号的。to当介词的情况比较少，往往用一些固定搭配。

    • I'm used to being woken up during the night.
    • I really look forward to seeing you again soon.

七、现在分词与过去分词_构成&特征&区别&基本用法

01.分词的构成与特征

  1. 分词是动词的非谓语形式，分为两种：现在分词和过去分词。

    现在分词由”动词原形 + ing“构成。

    规则动词的过去分词由”动词原形 + ed“构成。

  2. 与动名词和动词不定式一样，分词也具有动词的特征，有时态和语态的变化，并可带状语、宾语等。分词的否定式在分词前加not。

    • Walking to school yesterday, i met a friend.

    • Asked if she had any had habit, she answered that she was a heavy smoker.

    • Not wanting to be seen, I hid behind a table.

    • The tower being repaired was put up in the Tang Dynasty.正在被修的那座塔是唐代建成的。 #：首先过去分词没有时态跟语态的变化，语态因为被动过去分词本身就表示被动了，为啥没有时态呢？对于非谓语动词。我们用得比较多的有一个完成，而过去分词本身就可以表示完成了。所以过去分词没有时态没有语态的变化。现在分词的时态就是有一个一般时跟完成时，完成时——所有的非谓语动词用起来都一样的，就表示这个动作发生在谓语动词之前。而被动呢，现在分词它一般时有一个被动，完成时有一个被动，被动就更好理解了，因为，你就看它跟逻辑主语之间是一个主动关系，我们就用主动，是一个被动关系，我们就用被动。

    • Having waited in the queue for half an hour, the old man suddenly realized he had left the check in the car.

    注：少数过去分词的读音与形容词用时读音不一样。#：现在分词过去分词可以当形容词来用可以当复词来用，也就是说，它们有形容词的特征也有复词的特征，但是，对于少数的一些动词的过去分词就直接可以当形容词，但是当形容词来用的这个过去分词跟它本身就是直接的过去分词还有点读音不是太一样。

    • beloved [bɪ'lʌvd]过去分词 [bɪ'lʌvɪd]形容词
    • learned ['lə:nd]过去分词 ['lə:nɪd]形容词
    • aged [eɪʤd]过去分词 [eɪʤɪd]形容词

02. 过去分词与现在分词的区别

  1. 现在分词与过去分词的区别主要表现在语态和时间的概念上。在语态上，现在分词（除被动式外）表示主动意思，过去分词表示被动意思。在时间上，现在分词表示动作在进行，过去分词则表示动作的完成。

    • the rising sun 正在升起的太阳。

      the risen sun 升起了的太阳。

    • the falling autumn leaves 纷纷飘落的秋叶。

      the fallen autumn leaves 凋落的秋叶。

    • exciting news 振奋人心的消息。

      an excited audience 兴奋激昂的观众。

    • the changing world 变化着的世界。

      the changed world 变化了的世界。

    • the freezing wind 凌烈的寒风

      a frozen lake 结冰的湖

  2. 合成现在分词表示主动，合成过去分词表示被动或完成。

    • the far-reaching effects 深远的影响。
    • an easy-going person 随和的人。
    • an elegantly-furnished room 陈设雅致的房间。
    • a well-dressed woman 衣着讲究的女士
    • a well-read person 博览群书的人
    • a much-travelled man 见闻广博的人

  3. 作前置定语的现在分词既可以表示动作正在进行中，也可以表示不在进行中。

    在进行：

    • raging flames 熊熊烈火
    • howling wind 狂风
    • twittering swallows 呢喃的燕子
    • twinkling stars 闪烁的星星

    不在进行：

    • neighboring countries 邻国
    • promising young men 有前途的青年。
    • running water 自来水
    • convincing argument 令人信服的论点

  4. 过去分词也可以表示主动意义。

    过去分词作前置定语即可用表示已完成的被动动作，也可以表示已完成的主动动作。不管及物动词还是不及物动词，凡是”已完成了的“动作，作前置定语时一律用过去分词，而不用现在分词被动式，原则上语态服从时态。

    主动动作（已完成）：

    • escaped prisoner 逃犯
    • retired general 退休的将军
    • a burnt-out candle 燃尽的蜡烛
    • departed relatives 离去的亲人

    被动动作（已完成）：

    • smoked fish 熏鱼
    • canned food 罐头食品
    • planned economy 计划经济
    • a long-lost child 失散已久的孩子

03. 现在分词与过去分词_基本用法

分词具有动词的特征，同时又具有副词和形容词的特征，因而在句中可以作定语、表语、宾语补足语和状语等。

  1. 作状语

    分词作状语时表示的动作是主语动作的一部分。

    分词可以作时间、原因、方式、条件、结果、目的、让步等状语。

    • Hearing the news, he immediately left his office. #：Hearing就是分词作时间状语，一般来讲分词像作什么状语它就类似于一个什么样的状语从句了。
    • Seen from this tower, the park is a sea of trees. 如果你从这个塔上看，这个公园是一个数的海洋。（条件状语）
    • He walked down the hill, singing softly to himself.
    • Dressed in white, she suddenly appeared.
    • He stood at the window watching the sunset. #：分词作状语它是类似于状语从句，那么状语从句跟句子的关系就是，基本上绝大数数情况下我们不排除有例外，例外的情况我们先不管，那么就是放前放后都可以，然后呢，这个逗号也不是必须的。我们一般情况下，如果把状语从句放前那么跟主句之间有一个逗号隔开，如果把状语从句放后，那个逗号是要不要都可以。那么分词作状语的时候我们看跟句子之间也是这个关系，你放前放后，这个目前没有定论，我们需要具体的情况 具体分析，可能会有些例外的情况，只能放在哪个位置，然后分词跟句子之间那个逗号也不是必须的，在这你加上一个逗号也完全没问题啦。
    • The manager hurried to the hall followed by two guards.
    • Turning to the right, you will find the bank.
    • Given another chance, I'll do it much better.

    注：分词作状语时通常相当于对应的状语从句，但作方式或伴随状语时不能用状语从句替换，可以改写成并列句。

    • They were sitting around the table, chatting merrily.

      = They were sitting around the table and chatting merrily. #：我们用分词作状语的时候千万跟句子之间不能有连词，因为分词属于非谓语动词，非谓语动词它就不能作谓语，不能作谓语它就不能是一句话，不是一句话那么跟句子连接起来你就不能用连词，所以用分词作状语是的时候跟句子之间一定不能有连接词。

  2. 作定语

    分词作定语时，若被修饰名词为动作的发出者用现在分词；

    若被修饰名词为动作的承受者用过去分词。单个分词作定语一般放在被修饰词之前，分词短语作定语一般放在被修饰词之后。

    • A barking dog seldom bites.
    • I like the smiling baby.
    • the forbidden fruit.
    • A watched pot never boils.
    • Do you know the man talking to Mary?
    • The man sitting next to Mary is our teacher.
    • The man named John is my brother.

    注1：分词作定语的情况很多，有些可看作形容词。

    • a leading figure living things a dis gusting smell a boring book a haunted house a broken leg polluted water fried fish

    注2：单个的现在分词和动名词都可以作前置定语，但分词往往表示被修饰词所发出的动作，即分词动作的逻辑主语是它所修饰的词；而动名词则不然，它所修饰的词不能充当其逻辑主语，动名词作主语时多表示功能。

    • a sleeping baby = a baby that is sleeping.
    • a sleeping pill = a pill that is for sleeping.
    • a running stream = s stream that is running
    • running shoes = shoes for running

  3. 作表语

    分词作表语，现在分词往往表示主语所具有的特征，过去分词往往表示主语的状态或状况。

    • The music is pleasing to the ear.
    • The situation is encouraging.
    • He is satisfied with his present job.
    • He is gone.
    • You are mistaken.
    • She is tired of life
    • His illness remains unchanged.

    注1：分词和动名词都可以作表语，但分词作表语时保持了它的形容词特征，对主语加以描述，而动名词作表语时则表示一个行为动作。

    • The game is very exciting.
    • His aim is everybody having a good time.

  4. 作宾语补足语

    分词一般只在两类动词后作宾语补足语：感觉、感官动词 和 使役、致使动词。

    1）感觉、感官动词后作宾补。

    常见的这类动词有：see，observe，notice，watch，hear，smell，listen to，look at，find，fell等。

    • I heard him going upstairs.
    • I heard my name called.
    • I saw the train leaving.
    • I saw the thief caught by policemen.

    2）使役、致使动词动词后做宾补。

    常见的这类动词有：catch，set，make，get，have，keep等。

    • The teacher often caught him dozing off in class.
    • The joke set them all laughing.
    • She still couldn't make herself understood in English.
    • He managed to get it done on time.
    • Many young people have their hair colored.
    • I have kept you waiting a long time.

八、独立主格结构

01. 独立主格结构构成

独立主格结构是一个名词或代词（作为逻辑主语），加上一个形容词、副词、介词短语、名词、分词、不定式等在句中作状语。

解释：独立主格结构，前面是一个名词或者代词作主语，然后后面呢，总结一下，可以是分词可以是不定式，分词不定式这是非谓语动词，也可以是形容词、副词、介词短语或者名词，这一类其实省掉了being等于还是非谓语动词，所以简单来讲，独立主格结构就是，前面有逻辑主语，后面又非谓语动词，由于它不是一句话，所以后面那个动词只能用非谓语动词，不能用作谓语的那各种时态的就不行了。

02. 独立主格结构特点

  1. 独立主格结构的逻辑主语与句中的主语不同，它独立存在。

    独立主格结构之所以要自己带主语就是因为后面那个非谓语动词的主语跟句子的主语不一致，如果一致的话，按照我们前面学的就该用非谓语动词了，那非谓语动词的逻辑主语跟句子的主语不一致所以人家自己带上自己的主语，那它独立存在，所以叫独立主格结构

  2. 名词或代词与后面的形容词、副词、介词短语、名词、分词、不定式等存在逻辑上的主谓关系。

    我们说形容词、副词、介词短语、名词可以看做前面省略掉了being，being就是现在分词，那么那个逻辑主语跟后面的非谓语动词（不管是现在分词过去分词还是动词不定式）在逻辑上存在一个主谓关系，那也就是说，前面那个名词、代词就是后面这个非谓语动词这个动作的逻辑主语。

  3. 独立主格结构一般用逗号与主句分开，但与主句之间不能使用任何连接词。

    注意主句之间不能使用任何连接词，因为人家独立主格结构他不是句子，它没有谓语动词，既然不是句子，所以跟原来的这个句子之间，这句话的句子之间就不能有连接词，连接词是连接两个句子的。

03. 独立主格结构用法

独立主格结构表示谓语动词发生的时间、原因、条件或伴随情况等，相当于一个状语从句或并列句。

解释：独立主格结构其实和我们之前学的非谓语动词区别就在于非谓语动词的主句跟句子的主语是一致的而独立主格结构的主语，那也就是说非谓语动词的主语跟句子的主语是不一致的，不一致就叫做独立主格结构了，对不对。那么主格独立主格结构，一般来讲，在句子当中都是作的状语，时间状语、原因状语、条件状语、伴随状语等等，所以一般来讲作状语相当于一个状语从句，而我们之前讲分词作状语表示伴随这种情况的时候是不想当于状语从句但是相当于并列句，所以说，独立主格结构相当于一个状语从句或者是并列句。

  1. 作时间状语
    • The work done(=After the work had been done), we went home.
    • Everyone being ready(=When everyone was ready). the teacher began his class.
  2. 作原因状语
    • An important lecture to be given tomorrow(=As an important lecture will be given tomorrow), the professor has to stay up late into the night.
  3. 作条件状语
    • Weather permitting(=If weather permits), they will go on an outing to the beach tomorrow.
    • Good luck given(=If good luck is given), I will pass the test tomorrow.
  4. 作伴随状语
    • He was lying on the grass, his hands crossed under his head(=and his hands were crossed under his head).
    • A hunter came in, his face red with cold(=and his face was red with cold).
    • He returned three days later, his clothes torn into pieces(=and his clothes were torn into pieces).

注1：在”名词（代词） + 形容词（副词、介词短语、名词）”结构中，可以看作名词（代词）之后省略了现在分词being。

  • He entered the room, his face pale.

    = He entered the room, his face being pale.

  • The Trojans asleep, the Greek soldiers crept out of the hollow wooden horse.

    =The Trojans being asleep, the Greek soldiers crept out of the hollow wooden horse.

  • The meeting over, our headmaster left the meeting room.

    = The meeting being over, our headmaster left the meeting room.

但是，在下列两种情况下，独立主格结构中的being不能省略：

  1. 独立主格的逻辑主语是代词时。
    • It being Sunday, we went to church.
  2. 在There being + 名词的结构中。
    • There being no bus, we had to go home on foot.
    • There being nothing to do, we played games.

04. with型的独立主格结构

独立主格结构的逻辑主语前大多可以加with，从意思上没有太大区别，用法上区别如下：

  1. 不加with的结构更正式，加上with更通俗。

  2. 如果独立主格结构的逻辑主语是代词，不加with时代词用主格，加上with时代词用宾格。

    • He loving me, everyday is Valentine's day.

      With him loving me, everyday is Valentine's day.

  3. 独立主格结构中的非谓语动词若是动词不定式的被动，不加with时动词不定式用被动，加上with动词不定式用主动。

    • So much homework to be done, the little boy looks sad.

      With so much homework to do, the little boy looks sad.

    • So many dishes to be washed, I can't go out to see the film.

      With so many dishes to wash, I can't go out to see the film.

九、形容词和副词_基本用法&区别

01. 形容词的作用与位置

  1. 用作定语，修饰名词。一般放在所修饰的名词之前，如果两个以上的形容词修饰一个名词时，与被修饰名词关系密切的形容词靠近名词。
    • a powerful socialist country. #： [主观形容词] [客观形容词] 名词
    • an interesting English film.
  2. 作定语，修饰由不定代词no，any，some和every构成的复合词，如：anything，something时。
    • I have something interesting to tell you.
  3. 用作表语，与系动词be，grow，get，become，feel，appear，seem，prove，look，smell，taste，sound，remain等连用。
    • The desk is clean.
    • The weather is getting warmer and warmer.
  4. 用作宾语补足语。
    • The news made everyone happy.
    • I think the text very interesting.
  5. 与定冠词一起表示某一类人或物，在句中可作主语，宾语等。
    • The rich and the poor live very different lives.
    • He despises the poor.
  6. 作状语，表示伴随状况、原因、结果等。 #：作状语大多数是副词
    • He went to bed, cold an hungry.
    • Afraid of troubles, he would not accept the duty.

注1：某些以a-开头的形容词，如afraid，alike，asleep，awake等只能作表语，不能作定语。#：这样的形容词英文中叫表语形容词，尤其是以a-开头的形容词。这类形容词只能作表语不能作定语，确切的来讲，只能作表语不能作前置定语，也就是所作定语不能放前，有时候作定语可以放在后面。在后面，其实类似于定语从句里，照样这些词是作表语的，所以管这些词叫表语形容词

注2：某些以-l结尾的词是形容词而不是副词。如：friendly，lively，lovely，lonely，likely，deadly等。#：大部分以-ly结尾的形容词可以看作是在名词的基础上加了 -ly

02. 以-ing结尾的形容词与以-ed结尾的形容词

以-ing结尾的形容词大都表示主动的意思，译为"令人···"；

而以-ed结尾的形容词大都表示被动的意思，译为“感到···的”。

  • The news is so exciting.
  • I feel so excited.
  • The is embarrassing.
  • I've never felt so embarrassed.

03. 副词的分类

副词修饰动词、形容词、其他副词、全局或名词及介词。副词一般可分为以下几类

  1. 时间副词。如：now，usually，often，always等。
  2. 地点副词。如：here，there，out，everywhere等。
  3. 方式副词。如：hard，well，fast，slowly等。
  4. 程度副词。如：very，much，still，almost等。
  5. 疑问副词。如：how，when，why，where等。
  6. 关系副词。如：when，where，why等。
  7. 连接副词。如：whether，why，when，how等。

04. 副词的位置

  1. 时间副词和地点副词的位置一般放在句尾。如果这两种副词同时出现在句中，则把地点副词放在时间副词前面，也可把时间副词放在句首。但表示不确定时间的副词通常放在行为动词之前，放在情态动词、助动词和be之后。这些副词有always，seldom，often，never，rarely等。
    • They went boating in Beihai Park yesterday.
    • Yesterday they went boating in Beihai Park.
    • We should always work hard.
    • We are never late.
    • He often comes late.
  2. 程度副词一般放在被修饰词之前（enough列外）。
    • He is very careful.
    • You are old enough to do this.
  3. 多数方式副词都可以放在动词的后面，如果动词带有宾语，副词就放在宾语后面。
    • He works hard.
    • He speaks English very well.
  4. 副词修饰名词时，一般放在该名词之后；修饰介词时（如right，just等），放在该介词前；副词修饰全句时，一般放在句首。
    • The person there is looking for you.
    • There's the house, right in front of you.
    • Truly he will go to Shanghai.
  5. 副词的作用：副词在句中作状语、表语、定语和宾语补足语等。
    • I worked in Beijing almost for three years.（状语）
    • Time is up.（表语）
    • The building there looks very grand.（定语）
    • Let the dog out.（宾语补足语）

十、形容词和副词_比较级&最高级

英文中大多数形容词副词有三种形式：原级、比较级、最高级。

两者进行比较时用比较级；三者或三者以上进行行比较时用最高级。

01. 比较级最高级构成

  1. 一般情况词尾加-er构成比较级，加-est构成最高级。
    • fast - faster - fastest
    • hard - harder - hardest
    • great - greater - greatest
  2. 以-e结尾的词直接加-r/-st。
    • large - larger - largest
    • nice - nicer - nicest
  3. 以辅音字母加-y结尾的词，把-y变为-i再加-er/-est。#：注意读音
    • happy - happier - happiest
    • early - earlier - earliest
  4. 重读闭音节结尾的词双写最后一个辅音字母再加-er/est。 #：重读闭音节，简单的讲看这个单词最后结尾的三个字母，如果是辅音元音辅音的顺序又重读，那往往这样的就是重读闭音节
    • hot -hotter - hottest
    • big - bigger - biggest

注1：少数以-er，-ow结尾的双音节词，比较级在后面加-er，最高级在后面加-est。

  • clever - cleverer - cleverest
  • narrow - narrower - narrowest

注2：个别形容词、副词的比较级和最高级可有两种构成方法。

  • often - oftener - oftenest

    often - more often - most often

  • friendly - friendlier - friendliest

    friendly - more friendly - most friendly

02. 比较级的用法

  1. 两者进行比较时用比较级，表示“比···更···”，

    构成：比较级 + than...

    若比较级东西比较明显，than之后可以省去。

    • Mary is taller than Susan. #：本来说全了Mary is taller than Susan is，但是那个is和前面的is一样所以就省略了
    • This car is cheaper than that one.
    • This coat is prettier.
    • Today is warmer.

    注：在含有连词than的比较级中，前后的比较对象必须是同一范畴，即同类事物之间的比较。

    • Mary's English is better than Susan's
    • His computer is better than mine.
    • The climate here is warmer than that of Beijing .
    • He is taller than I/me.

  2. 注意定冠词在比较级中的使用。

    • Which is larger, Canada or Australia?

      Which is the larger country, Canada or Australia?

    • She is taller than her sister.

      She is the taller of the two sisters. #: 相当于She is the taller one of the two sisters.

  3. 不与其它事物相比，表示本身程度的改变时，用“比较级 + and + 比较级”或“more and more + 原级”结构，表示“越来越···”。

    • It is getting colder and colder.
    • Our school is becoming more and more beautiful.

  4. 表示一方随另一方的程度变化时，用“the + 比较级···，the + 比较级···“结构，表示”越···，越···“

    • The more money you make, the more you spend.
    • The more we have, the more we want.
    • The sooner, the better.

03.最高级的用法

三者或三者以上进行比较时用最高级，表示”最···“.

结构：the + 最高级（+ 比较范围）

比较范围往往是介词短语或从句（如of all，in the world，in the class，I have ever seen等）

  • Zhuang Hua is the tallest of the three.
  • He is the tallest in his class.
  • He is the tallest I have ever seen.

注1：最高级后的介词in与of不可用错，在表示范围的词前用in，在表示群体的词前用of。

  • Jim studies hardest of us all.
  • My mother is the busiest in my family.

注2：形容词最高级修饰作表语的词时，被修饰的词往往省略。

  • He is the tallest (boy) in his class.

注3：作状语的副词最高级前可以不加定冠词。

  • Of all the boys he came (the) earliest.

注4：表示”最高程度“的形容词，如 excellent，extreme，perfect等，没有最高级，也不能用比较级。

十一、形容词和副词_多音节&不规则的构成

  1. 多音节形容词和副词(通常两个音节以上)的比较级最高级分别为: more + 原级，most + 原级。 #：音节就是一个单词音标内部元音的数量，它有几个元音音标它就等于有几个音节，当然双元音算一个音节。

    • beautiful - more beautiful - most beautiful
    • expensive - more expensive - most expensive
    • famous - more famous - most famous
    • important - more important - most important
    • interesting - more interesting - most interesting
    • pleasant - more pleasant - most pleasant

    注1：双音节以辅音字母加-y结尾的词比较级最高级把-y变为-i再加-er/-est。

    • early - earlier - earliest

    • lucky - luckier - luckiest

    • This car is expensive

      That one is more expensive

    • It's the most expensive one in the shop.

    注2：当most的前面无定冠词the时,仅表示“很…,非常…”,相当于very。

    • Qingdao is a most beautiful city.
    • It is a most important problem.

    注3：若表示比原来少不管单音节词多音节词都在原级前加less变比较级，加 least变最高级。

    • Jenny's English is good.
    • My English is less good.
    • My English is the least good in the class.
    • This movie is interesting.
    • That one is less interesting.
    • It's the least interesting one I have ever seen.

  2. 常见的不规则变化的形容词和副词:

    • good/well - better - best

      • The patient is much better today.
      • She sings better than I (do).
      • The best thing about the party was the food.
      • You know best.

    • bad/ill - worse - worst

      • The weather got worse the next day.
      • If she's worse in the morning, I'll call the doctor.
      • What's the worst thing that could happen?

    • many/much - more - most

      • Would you like some more coffee?
      • Peter made the most mistakes of all the students.

    • little - less - least

      • You ought to drink less beer.
      • He is the best teacher even though he has the least experience.

    • old - older oldest；old - elder - eldest

      older和oldest多指年龄、年代的长久，用于比较级和最高级；elder和eldest指兄弟姐妹之间的长幼关系，不用于比较级和最高级。

      • Henry is older than Jim and is the eldest of the three brothers.
      • Her elder sister is three years older than she.

    • late - later(更晚的) - latest(最近的,最新的)； late - latter(后者的) -last(后的)

      • See you later.
      • latest news
      • the latter half of the year.
      • I didn't read the last chapter of the book.

    • far - farther - farthest；far - further - furthest

      强调在程度上更深远，只能用further；

      强调在距离上更远，美国只能用farther，英国两个都可以。

      • Do you have any further questions to ask?
      • If you need further information, I suggest you go to the library.
      • He jumped farther/further than Mike.
      • I can't go any farther/further.

十二、形容词和副词_特殊用法

01. 修饰原级、比较级和最高级的词

  1. 修饰原级，可用very，quite，so，too等词。
    • Jim is very tall.
    • That's quite impossible.
    • You are so thoughtful.
    • He is too young to drive.
  2. 修饰比较级，可用much，far，even，a lot，a little，a bit等词。
    • After two years' research, we now have a far better understanding of the disease.
    • You are a lot younger that !.
    • It is a little warmer today.
  3. 修饰最高级，可用序数词及by far，nearly，almost，by no means，not quite，not really等词或短语所修饰。
    • China is the second largest country in the world.
    • This hat is by far / nearly / almost / not really the biggest.

02. 同级比较

在这两种结构中，第一个as是副词，而第二个as是连词；在第二个as的后面接名词、代词或句子。

  1. 表示双发情况”一模一样“，用”as + 原级 + as“的结构。
  2. 表示双方情况”不（那么）一样“，用”not so / as + 原级 + as“的结构。
  • My parcel is as heavy as yours.
  • Arthur calculates as accurately as a calculator.
  • His bedroom is not as neat as his sister's.
  • It is not so hot as yesterday.
  • I can't speak English as fast as a native speaker.

注1：在as ... as 的结构中，第一个as的前面可以加上表示倍数的词或是某些副词修饰语，如：twice，three times，nearly，almost，not really（根本不）等。

  • Asia is four times as large as Europe.
  • James is not really as tall as Robert.
  • Cast iron is almost as useful as steel.

注2：在as ... as的结构中，我们还常见这样两种句型：“as much + 不可数名词 + as”和“as many + 复数可数名词 + as”。

  • He doesn't earn as much money as you do.
  • He has learned as many English words as his brother (has).

注3：一些结构貌似同级比较，但其实是习惯用语。

  • as long as 只要

  • as soon as 一 ... 就 ...

  • as well as 既 ... 又 ...

  • as good as 几乎

  • He will work as long as he lives

  • He left as soon as hung up the phone.

  • He has experience as well as knowledge.

  • The injured man is as good as dead.

03. 表示最高级意义的几种特殊结构

  1. as + 原级 + as any（或ever）

    • She is as bright as any in the school.

  2. as + 原级 + as ··· can be

    • He is as happy as happy can be.

  3. Nothing （no，nobody···）··· + so + 原级 + as，Nothing（no，nobody···）··· + 比较级 + than ···

    • Nothing is so precious as health.

    • Nothing is more precious than health.

  4. 比较级 + than any other （或 anything else）

    • She is more careful than any other student class.

  5. never / not + 比较级

    • I can't agree more.

    • The weather couldn't be worse.

    • He couldn't have done better.

    • He couldn't care less.

04. 英语中表达倍数的三种方式

  1. A is ··· times as ··· as B #：A 是 B 的几倍（大、长、宽等等）

  2. A is ··· times the amount (the number, the size, the length, the width/breadth, the height, the value, the price, etc.) of B #：A 是 B 的几倍（从量上来讲是几倍）
  3. A is ··· times 比较级 than B #：A 是 B 的四倍大，就是 A 比 B 要大三倍
  • 他的工资是我的三倍。
    • His salary is three times as much as mine. 第一个结构
    • His salary is three times the amount of mine. 第二个结构
    • His salary is twice more than mine. 第三个结构
  • 这个箱子是那个箱子的四倍大。
    • The box is four times as big as that one.
    • The box is four times the size of that one.
    • The box is three times bigger than that one.
  • 亚洲是欧洲的四倍大。
    • Asia is four times as large as Europe.
    • Asia is four times the size of Europe.
    • Asia is three times larger than Europe.

十三、冠词_基本用法

01. 定冠词the

  1. 定冠词the可修饰任何名词。

    the的读音取决于后面一个单词的第一个音标。

    后面一个单词的第一个音标若是辅音则读[ðə]；

    后面一个单词的第一个音标若是元音则读[ði:]。

  2. 定冠词the的使用场合：

    1）用在表示独一无二的或被认为是唯一东西的名词前。

    • The world is like a stage.

    • The sky is clear blue now.

    • They thought the earth was the center of the universe.

    • 注：某些名词若因阴晴雨雪等而表现出不同的状况，前有形容词修饰时，也可用不定冠词。a blue sky a starry sky a new moon a full moon a half moon

    2）用在表示特指的人或物的名词前（熟知或心照不宣的人或物）

    • Alice is in the back garden.
    • Where are the other students?
    • It rained heavily during the night.
    • The air is fresh after the rains.

    比较：

    • She likes the man of great humor.她喜欢那个幽默风趣的人。（特指）

      She likes a man of great humor.她喜欢幽默风趣的人。（泛指）

    3）用在第二次提到的人或物的名词前。

    • We were just preparing to spend the night in the open when an old man came up to us and invited us to his house. When we entered the house, the old man asked us to sit down and began serving us coffee.

    4）用在由短语或从句修饰的名词前。

    • The key to the safe is lost.
    • The restaurant where I had my dinner last night is very expensive.

    5）用在形容词、副词最高级或序数词前；only，same，main等修饰名词时，前面也要用定冠词。

    • He is the only heir.

    • The same thing happened.

    • That's the main point.

    注：在一些习语中，序数词前不用定冠词。

    • He is second to none in skill.
    • I went to see her first thing in the morning.

    6）用在单数名词前表示种类。

    • The rose smells sweet.
    • The telephone was invented by Alexander G. Bell.
    • The fox may grow grey, but never good.

    7）用在形容词、现在分词、过去分词前表示同一类人或物。

    the rich the poor
    the old the young
    the blind the deaf
    the missing the living
    the injured the wounded
    the employed the unemployed
    the right and the wrong the good and the evil
    the true, the good and the beautiful 真、善、美 the false, the evil and the ugly假、丑、恶

    8）用在表示海洋、河流、山脉、群岛、某些国名、某些机构组织等名词前。

    • the Atlantic the Thames the Alps the Philippines the Netherlands the P. R. C.

    9）用在姓氏的复数形式前，表示一家人。

    • The Smiths often go to church on Sundays.
    • The Blacks have just bought a new car.

    10）用在乐器名称前。

    • She is learning to play the violin

    11）用在表示学校船只、飞机、三军、历史朝代等的名词前。

    • the University of London
    • the May flower
    • the Air Force
    • the Song Dynasty

02. 不定冠词

定义：a/an称为不定冠词，意思为“一个”，只放在可数名词单数前。

注意：用a还是用an取决于后面单词的第一个音标；原因是方便连读。

例如：a useful tool an honest man a one-eyed man a European country

不定冠词的使用场合：

  1. 表示”一“这个数量时。
    • He needs an assistant.
    • Rome wasn't built in a day.心急吃不了热豆腐或者罗马不是一天建成的。
    • He didn't say anything, not a word.
  2. 用在可数名词单数前，表示类别。
    • A child needs love.
    • A triangle has three angles.
    • A horse is a useful animal.
  3. 用在姓名前或”Mr./ Mrs./ Miss/ Ms. + 姓氏“前，表示”某一个，某位“，有不肯定的意味。
    • A Mr. Thomson wanted to see you.
    • A Mrs. Chambers is waiting for you in the yard.
    • I met a John Smith there.
    • Her English teacher is a Miss Zhang.
  4. 用在地名、国名等等专有名词前，表示某时的情况或某种样子。
    • You will see a even stronger China in the near future.
    • He would never think of such a New York.
  5. 表示”每一“，相当于each或per。
    • The dinner cost us twenty dollars a person.
    • I visit my parents once a week.
    • She goes downtown only twice a year.

十四、冠词_零冠词

  1. 三餐前不要冠词。

    • have breakfast / lunch / supper / dinner
    • Dinner is ready.

  2. 不可数名词泛指时不要冠词。

    • I like music.
    • People can''t live without air.
    • Water is colorless.
    • Iron is one of the most useful metals.

  3. 复数名词泛指时不要冠词。

    • Horses are beautiful animals.
    • Children usually like to eat candy.
    • My nephew likes to read stories.

  4. by + n. 表示交通方式不要冠词。

    • by bus by train by plane by ship

  5. 在表示人名、地名的专有名词前一般不要冠词。

    • My name is Elaine.
    • I live in Beijing.
    • Beijing is the capital of China.

  6. 称呼前不要冠词。

    • I'm not feeling well, doctor.
    • Now, you listen to me, young man.
    • I love you, son.

  7. 语言前不要冠词。

    • Sara is studying Chinese.
    • French is hard to learn.
    • Both English an Spanish are spoken in this area.

  8. bed，school，church，hospital等强调其功能时不要冠词。

    • go to bed / school / church
    • send sb. to school / bed
    • His father is in hospital.

  9. 颜色前不要冠词。

    • White is my favorite color.

  10. 学科前不要冠词。

    • He majors in physics.

  11. 在季节、月份、星期、日期、节假日等表示时间的名词之前不加冠词。

    • It often rains in summer.
    • I was born on November 29th.
    • We don't go to school on Sundays.
    • They got married on New Year's Day.

  12. 在表示运动及游戏的名词前一般不需要冠词。

    • He likes playing football.
    • Some people are playing chess under the tree.

  13. 名词前已有物主代词、指示代词、不定代词等词修饰时，一般不需要冠词。

    • My house is much bigger than his.
    • This garden is newly built.
    • Do you have any classes this afternoon？

  14. 泛指的抽象名词和物质名词前不需要冠词。

    • The little boy is interested in science.
    • We get heat and light from the sun.
    • Wisdom is better than strength.
    • The tool is made of iron.
    • Beauty lives for ever.

    注意：当某些物质名词或抽象名词指具体的东西或人时，需要冠词。

    • She bought an iron yesterday.
    • She is really a beauty.
    • I'm reading a paper.

  15. 成对儿使用的名词或形容词等固定搭配中，一般不用冠词。

    • face to face track and field husband and wife father and son hand in hand back to back right and wrong rich and poor

  16. 方位词用作状语时，前面不需要冠词。

    • The window faces north.
    • The ship sailed west.
    • China lies west of Japan.

  17. 在含有province，county等的专有名词前不需要冠词。

    • Jiangsu Province Kent County

  18. 一些习惯用于中要求不用冠词。

    • at table 在进餐 out of stock 脱销 by mistake 错误的 at war 处于交战中 by chance 偶然 out of job 失业 out of date 过时 catch fire 着火
    • 积累，平常积累
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原文地址：https://www.cnblogs.com/Wizard-Z/p/14319375.html