- Subjective Relativism -- Individual people decide for themselves what is right or wrong.
This theory permits a variety of views and avoids casting judgment on others.
However, it makes no moral distinctions, accepts no universal moral norms, and ultimately cannot insist on anything as "right" -- even tolerance of others!
- Cultural Relativism -- Individual cultures decide for themselves what is right or wrong.
This theory allows for appreciation of different cultural perspectives.
However, like subjective relativism, it suggests that there is no objective right or wrong, meaning there is no way to judge another society. (So, what about: Hitler? Ethnic cleansing? Female circumcision? Etc …)
- Divine Command Theory -- God tells us what is right or wrong; People (and cultures) should follow God's dictates.
If God is all-good and all-knowing, clearly He knows best.
However, various individuals (and cultures) have differing views of God's will. It would be helpful to have an ethical theory that will not be deadlocked by the initial religious perspective,
so that many people can agree on an ethical course of action. It also may help deal with specific contemporary issues that might be difficult to ascertain from traditional religious texts.
- Kantianism (Deontology) -- Universal moral laws exist and should be followed. Actions should be based on duty to others.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) believed that moral laws must be based on reason and duty.
Whether an action is moral depends upon whether it complies with the underlying moral rule and whether our reason for taking that action is out of respect for that moral rule. To determine whether a particular rule is morally appropriate, Kant suggests analyzing it according to his Categorical Imperative.
-
- Any moral rule should be universally applicable. Rules should not change based on circumstance or depend on who is involved.
- Always treat people as ends in themselves, never merely as means to an end. It's wrong to use other people purely to achieve a particular result, even if the result seems moral or worthwhile.
-
-
- Examples of Kantianism (Deontology):
-
- Act Utilitarianism -- Consequences determine right and wrong. An act is ethical if it produces the greatest overall good ("happiness") for the greatest number of people.
- Rule Utilitarianism -- Consequences determine right and wrong. Ethical rules are designed to produce the greatest good for the greatest number the majority of the time. An act is ethical if it follows a Rule designed to produce the greatest overall good for the greatest number of people.
- Social Contract Theory -- Societal "contract" that all tacitly agree to follow (for their mutual good) determines what actions are ethical. Ethics basically follow the rational rules of society. So long as a rational person would agree to accept a rule if others would follow it as well, that rule is deemed ethical.
- Virtue Ethics -- If you cultivate virtuous behavior, you will act ethically as a matter of course. Instead of asking the question "What should I do" in a particular ethical situation, a virtue ethicist is constantly striving to be a virtuous person by cultivating virtuous habits. Thus, the emphasis is on the person him/herself, as defined by behavior and intent over time, rather than on analysis of particular ethical questions.